FOREWORD

At that time I had five years of experience in chairing the EC - Research Programme 1979–1984 on Better Use of Genebanks. As from 1982 I attended the meetings for making start with a FAO-UNDP programme on Genetic Resources in Europe (ECP/GR), later managed by the IBPGR. In these years the research community became increasingly convinced about the need to strengthen and to coordinate efforts to maintain plant material of known or unknown value.

After the XXIInd International Horticultural Congress in 1986 in Davis, California, Dr. Jahn enlisted Prof. James N. Moore as editor and they began preparations for developing this voluminous and interesting publication. When Dr. Jahn was unable to continue, Prof. Moore took over the task in April 1987. Dr. James R. Ballington joined him as co-editor in April 1988.

In January 1989 a contract was signed to finalize the publication. In a meeting with the editors in August 1989 it was decided to publish a real Handbook and to try to get it printed before the XXIIIrd International Horticultural Congress, to be held in August 1990 in Florence, Italy.

In these twelve months a tremendous amount of work was done by the editors, the 19 authors of the chapters and by Mr. Joop Timmer, as former director of a publishing house well experienced to help finalise this book.

This Handbook gives ample information on the described species of fruits and nuts and gives facts useful to students and scientists in fruit breeding and genetic resources.

We convey our gratitude to Dr. Otto Jahn for the initiative taken, to Prof. James N. Moore and Dr. James R. Ballington for the editorial work and to the 19 authors for their important work realised in the separate chapters.

We are proud that members of our Society have taken the initiative and that we can present to you their splendid book.

For the I.S.H.S.

Heiko van der Borg

Secretary-General


PREFACE

The need for this book was identified by Dr. Otto L. Jahn while he was curator of the National Clonal Germplasm Repository at Corvallis, Oregon. In his position with NCGR, Dr. Jahn became concerned about the loss of valuable fruit and nut germplasm worldwide and was a strong proponent of collection, classification and preservation of germplasm. He perceived the need for a thorough assessment of the current world status of temperate fruit and nut germplasm. We dedicate this book to Dr. Jahn and hope that it fulfills his expectations.

There is probably no greater need in the world today than the need to protect and preserve our precious heritage of plant germplasm. Through the centuries of human habitation on this planet, we have used and exploited the vast array of plants provided by nature, with little thought of any diminution of this bounty. Only recently have we come to realize the magnitude of losses in valuable germplasm that have occurred on a global scale, and in large part continue to occur. This not only applies to major agronomic crops and vegetables, because it is quite evident that the genetic diversity of many of our temperate zone fruit and nut crops is also experiencing rapid erosion. Ironically, this is occurring at a time when biologists and plant breeders are coming to the realization that new combinations of genes from nature's gene pool will be required to adapt crop plants for survival in a changing world environment.

We cannot now predict the climatic and edaphic changes that will occur in the future, but we can predict with certainty that such changes will happen. Certainly we are already seeing the necessity of shifting some crop plant production onto areas considered to have marginal soils and climate. This trend will accelerate in the future, and while some change can be accommodated by changing cultural practices, ultimate success will be achieved only through genetic modification of the plant. If this is to be accomplished, plant breeders must have a wide genetic base from which to draw. Only through the preservation of existing genetic diversity can plant breeders of the future hope to develop the genotypes that will be required to sustain future generations. The responsibility for seeing that this happens rests squarely on the shoulders of the present generation. We must not fail.

In this book, we have asked chapter authors to define the genetic base of present crop plant cultivars, to list existing problems that have genetic solutions, to outline the known genetic resources existing within both cultivated genotypes and related wild species, and to assess the current status of germplasm preservation. This is not intended to be a book on plant breeding, but rather on germplasm available for present and future needs in breeding. As such, we hope that it will prove of value to present and future plant breeders as well as to all persons involved in, and concerned with, the essential cause of germplasm preservation.

To accomplish our aims, we have solicited authors who are knowledgeable and intimately concerned with germplasm preservation of the crop species on which they write. They have surveyed and summarized the world literature on germplasm, and even more importantly, have included their own experiences and observations on genetic resources in their crop species. The authors developed their own list of contributors to their chapters in order to get as complete as possible world coverage of the subject. We have included chapters on the majority of the major temperate fruit and nut crops of the world. We also included chapters on two recently domesticated temperate fruits (pawpaw and saskatoon) to illustrate that opportunities for crop domestication still exist using naturally occurring germplasm resources.

We are grateful to the authors and contributors for their time and effort in developing the chapters of this book. We also thank the following people who reviewed portions of the manuscript: S.K. Brown, J.D. Caldwell, C.K. Chandler, B. Comeaux, R.H. Converse, A.D. Crowe, J.N. Cummins, H.A. Daubeny, H.W. Fogle, L.J. Grauke, M. Hall, J. Janick, H.B. Lagerstedt, R.C. Lamb, F.J. Lawrence, R.E.C. Layne, J.J. Luby, G.I. Mink, J.A. Mortensen, W.R. Okie, K. Ryugo, R. Sanderlin, W.B. Sherman, D. Sparks, E.J. Stang, G. Tehrani, J. Thompson, M.M. Thompson, J. Watson, D. Werner, and R.E. Worley.

We appreciate the assistance of the ISHS-Secretariat, that served as our liaison with the printer and publisher. We also thank Mr. Joop Th. Timmer, who served as adviser in all editorial matters related to the production of this book.

We appreciate the assistance of the ISHS-Secretariat, that served as our liaison with the printer and publisher. We also thank Mr. Joop Th. Timmer, who served as adviser in all editorial matters related to the production of this book.

James N. Moore
James R.Ballington, Jr.


INTRODUCTION

There is every reason to believe that temperate fruit and nut crops were as important to the diet of early man and early civilizations as they are today-perhaps even more so. Not only did they provide a convenient source of energy but vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber as well. Fruits and nuts were available over a relatively long period of time during the summer and fall months and they could be dried and stored for use in winter months as well. Thus, it is easy to understand why, over time, germplasm of the fruit and nut crops became widely dispersed. Surely birds and animals also helped, but it was probably man who has contributed most to the distribution of genetic stocks with improved horticultural characteristics.

While the use of plant genetics and improved plant breeding techniques have been used for only about the last 100 years, we must recognize the benefits of plant selection that have accumulated slowly over many previous centuries. Surely flavor, size, yield, earliness of season, and storability of fruits and nuts were important throughout the centuries. With the development of grafting and other forms of asexual propagation, it became easier to maintain and disseminate those plants with unusual or desirable characteristics.

From what we know and what we can assume, the use and exchange of improved plants have made a major contribution to the development of agriculture and civilization. Sometimes, I think historians, public administrators, and even agriculturists fail to realize or forget the importance of plant genetic resources to agriculture. Hopefully this book on genetic resources of temperate fruit and nut crops will provide background information and an awareness of the value of genetic resources.

With the availability and wide array of genetic resources of temperate fruit and nut crops passed to us from previous generations, the accepted principle of free access and exchange of known resources, and new improved plant breeding techniques, tremendous advances have been made in breeding new and improved fruit and nut varieties for all temperate production areas of the world. It is not uncommon to see fruit,; varieties developed in Europe, Japan, New Zealand, or other countries, growing in the U.S.A. and elsewhere. Neither is it unusual to see U.S. varieties being grown in other countries. This is exciting to plantsmen and plant breeders; this is the way it should be. Because of this worldwide sharing and exchange of genetic resources and new varieties, fruit and nut crops are very important to world agriculture and to the diet and health of our growing world population. It is hoped that such free access, availability, and use of genetic resources and improved varieties will continue well into the future.

When we look at a world globe and compare the small geographic areas of the centers of diversity of fruit and nut crops to the temperate production areas, it is easy to recognize that every country is dependent on other countries for a source of undeveloped germplasm and primitive species. This interdependence will increase with world losses of genetic resources and an increased need for exotic genes for use in genetic engineering systems, resistance to pests and environmental stress factors, and adaptation to marginal land areas. It is my fervent hope that international politics would not interfere with continued free access and exchange of genetic resources so important to our respective countries.

We must recognized and address the world problem of declining genetic resources in general and the loss of temperate fruit and nut genetic resources in particular. Much of the genetic diversity once found in the centers of diversity for temperate fruit and nut crops is now probably lost. I know that is true for areas in the Caucausus mountains in southern U.S.S.R. where many of our deciduous fruit crops are thought to have originated. I spent 7 weeks there in 1967 and found far fewer trees, seedlings, and species than I had anticipated after reading the literature (Brooks, 1968). I found that older trees were being cut for firewood and the land was overgrazed to the point where seedlings did not survive. In addition, most of the wild pome fruit were harvested before they matured and it appeared that few seed were available for natural germination. As world population continues to increase, this problem of loss of germplasm will probably also increase. It is not likely to decrease.

Even though the U.S.A. is not a center of origin for apples and pears, there has been a great loss of genetic diversity of these crops even within our own borders. Ragan (1926 a and b) reported that over 7,000 apple varieties were described in American literature between 1804 and 1904 and about 2,500 pear varieties between 1804 and 1907. Only a few of these varieties remain. The family orchards are gone and seedling fruit trees in fence rows and along the highways are now an uncommon sight.

It would be easy to point fingers at others for this loss of genetic resources. But we all probably should take some of the blame. Here in the U.S.A., for example, there has been a tremendous reduction in fruit and nut breeding programs over the last several decades. From data collected by Brooks and Vest (1985), there was a projected 58 percent reduction in the number of U.S. programs between the years 1955–1960 and 1990. This was a greater reduction than with the other horticultural crops. These projections have proven to be accurate, with a resulting loss of genetic resources of fruit and nut crops. Long-term breeding programs are expensive and it is easy for public administrators to rationalize that ‘somebody else’ will save the germplasm and do the plant breeding. Unlike the agronomic crops, where the private sector has assumed much of the responsibility for breeding improved varieties, the public sector must assume the major responsibility for breeding fruit and nut crops.

Individual scientists often also neglect their individual responsibility to preserve and maintain germplasm. Often it is just a lack of an awareness of the situation. My own research is a good example. When I was given the lead responsibility for the U.S. Department of Agriculture pear breeding program in 1960, the first thing I did was to assemble and evaluate as many species and varieties as were available in the world. The greater the diversity of geographic origin the better, as I was looking primarily for resistance to Erwinia amylovora, the bacterial disease that causes fireblight. My associates and I assembled 522 accessions which, at the time, was considered to be the largest collection in the U.S.A. We then proceeded to mass inoculate the entire collection in the field for resistance to fireblight (Oitto et al., 1970). We were highly successful in getting the disease organism to severely infect 88 percent of the collection without having the foresight to have previously propagated and maintained the entire collection in a separate area free of fireblight. I can only hope that the plant breeders of today are more aware of the worldwide loss of genetic resources and establish safeguards for its evaluation. I think it also is the responsibility of our plant breeders to inform public administrators of the problems that exist on a crop-by-crop basis, help evaluate the seriousness of the problem, help identify the adverse impact to world agriculture, and help develop strategies for support of long-term preservation programs.

Many scientists in the U.S.A. and around the world have recognized this problem of worldwide loss of plant genetic resources. Fortunately, the U.S.A. has committed resources for collection and preservation of these resources. In 1976, a plan was conceived for establishing national fruit and nut germplasm repositories (Brooks and Barton, 1977), and the entire clonal repository system is now in place for these crops. Similar repositories have been established in other countries.

There also has been some consideration given to establishment of field genebanks of vegetatively propagated crops by the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR). IBPGR is the autonomous international scientific organization under the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) for the promotion and coordination of an international network of genetic resource centers. CGIAR is co-sponsored by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the United Nations Development Program, and the World Bank. Unfortunately, emphasis to date has been placed on root crops and tubers, tropical fruits, industrial crops, and certain perennial species. There are no centers for the preservation of temperate fruit and nut crops.

The U.S.A. has also taken leadership in establishing a national Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) which is a computerized database for passport and evaluation data on plant genetic resources held in the U.S.A. Information on the fruit and nut clonal repositories is included and an attempt has been made to make this network compatible with existing or emerging data-retrieval systems in other countries. Crop Advisory Committees (CAC) have been established for the major crops in the U.S.A., including fruit and nut crops, and these Committees make recommendations on preservation and use of genetic resources. It is hoped that the CAC's will help develop international cooperation and exchange of genetic resources of economic crops.

While I have mentioned the worldwide losses of plant genetic resources and the need for continued free exchange of germplasm, I would be remiss if I did not give special credit and thanks to the many plant breeders and other scientists who have assisted and supported preservation of genetic resources worldwide. I can thank of no example of cooperation any more important to world agriculture than the preservation and sharing of germplasm.

But I also would be remiss if I did not call attention to several major concerns that I have. I have already mentioned the reduction in the number of fruit and nut breeding programs in the U.S.A. It is a major national concern and one that may not be easy to correct given the many social and economic problems that the U.S.A. and the world are facing today. With the reduction in breeding programs, there is a loss in the opportunity to involve and train students in plant breeding. It would be a serious long-term loss if we committed resources to the preservation of fruit and nut germplasm and then failed to use the germplasm to help solve agricultural production and marketing problems.

But of even greater concern is the issue of plant proprietary rights and the ownership of genetic material. To the best of my knowledge, prior to 1985 there were no legal restrictions in the U.S.A. on the use of patented or non-patented varieties as parents in a breeding program. The U.S. Plant Patent Act of 1930 did not provide for a research exemption but, by common practice, vegetatively propagated plants patented under this Act have been freely and openly used as parents. The use of the best available plant material as parents has been the preferred and universally accepted procedure for centuries.

But in 1985, the U.S. Patent Office Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences ruled that the general Patent Act (the utility patent) could be used to give proprietary rights to individual plant genes, gene combinations, plant characteristics, plant products, and many other types of claims. This is unlike the Plant Patent Act which allows only one claim which is for the whole plant as described.

Since the utility patent prevents anyone from using an invention for research purposes and commercialization of the results of that research during the life of the patent, the consensus among patent lawyers is that it would be an infringement to use plants protected by a utility patent as parents. But there is a further interpretion that is equally disturbing. With the utility patent, one can patent plant characteristics and traits. For example, should one be successful in getting a utility patent on the trait of cold hardiness of peach or fireblight resistance in pears, one would essentially own that invention for the life of the patent. One could prevent others from getting patents on the identical trait even though one could prove that someone else had achieved the same results with different genes.

In my opinion, the use of the utility patent on plants has far-reaching adverse implications worldwide to plant breeding and agriculture. Unless this ruling on the use of the utility patent is reversed or a research exemption is allowed on plants protected with a utility patent, scientists will discontinue free exchange of germplasm, countries will attempt to protect germplasm within their own borders, and the best plant material will be unavailable as parents. Many scientists share my views and concerns.

In conclusion, I think we all owe a debt of gratitude to the editors and authors of this book. It will call attention to the high priority placed on plant genetic resources in general and the current status of genetic resources of individual temperate fruit and nut crops. It will identify known or potential inadequacies of genetic resources, suggest possible activities to help correct these inadequacies, and encourage increased international cooperation in the collection, preservation, evaluation, exchange, and use of temperate fruit and nut crops. It is an honor to have been asked to write this introductory chapter.